Effects of Caffeine on the Brain

Effects of Caffeine on the Brain Literature Review:  Effects of water on the body. 2.0.1 Energy level. In order to increase energy level, the human body has to be kept hydrated constantly. The human brain is mostly made up of water hence it is of utmost importance that we keep our brain hydrated to obtain maximum productivity and alertness (Simonds,N.D). A well hydrated body will create higher amounts of oxygen levels present in the body, which will provide us with more energy. The increased energy levels will make a person more alert and even lift their mood (Bernstein, 2012). Even if the level of water in the body is at least one percent below the optimal water level, the person will feel fatigue (Chasey,N.D). 2.0.2 Effects of drinking water on the brain Water provides the brain with electrical energy in order for all the functions of the brain to be carried out, which includes thought and memory processes. It has also been proven to help a person â€Å"be more focused, has the ability to experience greater clarity creativity and think faster† (Bailey, 2013). A study was carried out on participants who drank three cups of water which was 24 ounces, or 775 milliliters. After taking a battery of cognitive tests, the participants who drank water performed better on a test that measured reaction time compared with those who did not drink water. The researchers contemplated that the thirst sensation of the participants may have taken some attention away from their task at hand, resulting in a slower response time (Rettner, 2013). However, in another study, water consumption did not affect the results on other tests of cognition much, such as memory of words (Rettner, 2013). 2.1  Effects of Caffeine on the Brain 2.1.1  Alertness Adenosine is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter in our brain. Adenosine is produced as long as we are awake as our brain has neurons. These neurons are specialised cells that transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another in order for us to carry out daily activities. Adenosine is a by product of the functioning neuron. The Adenosine produced will then bind to adenosine receptors which is a method used by our body to detect the amount of adenosine in our body. When the amount of adenosine in our body reaches a certain amount, the information will be sent to our brain or spinal cord causing us to feel tired. Caffeine, like the Adenosine, also binds to the Adenosine Receptors. Compared to adenosine molecules, Caffeine molecules have the capability to bind faster to adenosine receptors. As such, when the Caffeine molecules are binded before the Adenosine molecules, the Caffeine molecules blocks the Adenosine Receptors from causing any effects of tiredness or sleepiness in our body (Goodwin, 2013). Figure 2.1: In the brain Caffeine (C) binds faster to adenosine receptors. Adenosine (A), which is a natural sedative, will be prevented from attaching itself therefore, causing alertness. 2.1.2  Adrenaline Since caffeine prevents the adenosine from binding with the adenosine receptor, uncontrolled neuron activation will occur (N.A, 2009). This will cause the pituitary gland to release a certain hormone into the bloodstream which will affect the adrenal glands to produce adrenaline which is a â€Å"flight or fright† hormone (Veracity, 2005). The flight or fright hormone is our body’s way to prepare ourselves to â€Å"fight† or â€Å"flee† in situations that make us feel as if we are under attack, threatened or harmed the response produced is primitive, automatic and an innate (Neimark, N.D).Adrenaline will also cause an increase in muscle tension, blood pressure, respiration, heart rate, metabolism, mental alertness, emotional and a decrease in digestion, sex hormones, mental creativity, emotional stability will be decreased (Bay, N.D) 2.2  Importance of taking caffeine in moderation 2.2.1  Caffeine Tolerance Tolerance is the reduced stimulus towards a drug, which will occur when the drug is repeatedly used until the body has adapted to its presence (Hussar, 2013). Therefore a higher dose of drugs will be needed to achieve the same outcome achieved initially (NIH, 2007). Since caffeine is a drug, too much intake of it will cause us to be tolerant to it. This is due to the gradual creation of adenosine receptors by the brain cells to re-balance the adenosine receptors that have been blocked by caffeine molecules (Stromberg,2013). Eventually more adenosine receptors will be produced, causing the need of more caffeine molecules to block the extra adenosine receptors created in order to achieve the same effect that was intended (Stromberg,2013). Off and on, drinkers require little amounts of caffeine for optimal performance during cognitive tasks while habitual drinkers require a higher dosage of caffeine to achieve the same effect (Papadeli, Papadelis, Louizos, Tziampiri, 2002). 2.2.2  Effect of drinking caffeine near bed time For a regular drinker the ingestion of caffeine will not affect much but if a person is not a regular drinker he or she may find it difficult to fall asleep (Keeffe, 2011). These problems usually arise during the digestion of caffeine in the body. Caffeine will be mainly digested in the liver by a liver enzyme to produce Theophylline, Theobromine, and Paraxanthine separately (Gabriel, 2000). Paraxanthine molecule has almost the same structure and effect as caffeine on the brain (Gabriel, 2000). If the intake of caffeine increases, the amount of caffeine and Paraxanthine that will be accumulated in the body will also increase (Keeffe, 2011). Adenosine that has been produced in the body can only be removed through sleep. Therefore insufficient sleep will cause tiredness and unproductivity throughout the following day which will lead to another cup of coffee to overcome that tiredness. The more caffeine ingested, the more adenosine and caffeine molecules will be accumulated in the body by night. The half life of one dosage of caffeine is 3-7 hours but if more caffeine is accumulated in our body the half life of caffeine can increase from 11-96 hours or even days (Keeffe, 2011). 2.2.3  Effects of high doses of caffeine on cognition. It is important to take caffeine in moderation which is about 200 to 300 mg per day (Rivers, 2012). If caffeine is taken in excess which is more than 500 to 600 mg it will disturb our body systems as caffeine is a drug that can cause our adrenal glands to release adrenaline. Therefore, a person may suffer from insomnia, nervousness, restlessness, irritability, upset stomach, fast heartbeat and muscle tremors if adrenaline is released in excess in a person’s body (Mayo Clinic, 2014). The more severe symptoms of caffeine overdose is trouble of breathing, vomiting, hallucinations, confusion, chest pain, irregular or fast heartbeat and uncontrollable muscle movements, convulsions (Rivers, 2012). Caffeine will also block our adenosine receptors therefore too much caffeine will result in sleep deprivation. A normal person needs about 7 to 8 hours of sleep. Sleep deprivation is caused by the disruption in the sleep cycles which may eventually cause to the feeling of tiredness, moody and depression. Sleep deprivation will also disrupt a person’s performance and alertness during the day (Mayo Clinic, 2014). 2.2.4  Effect’s of low doses of caffeine on cognition. A study was once done to study the effects of low doses of caffeine on cognition of 11 males and 12 females aged between 18 and 56. The respondents were either given 0, 12.5, 25, 50 or 100 mg of caffeine. Their performance was tested by using a test battery that consisted of a long duration simple reaction time test, a rapid visual information processing task and a mood questionnaire. All the doses of the caffeine had influenced cognitive performance, there were minimal differences between the dosage size. The effects of caffeine were more obvious in those that were regular caffeine consumers. After a night without caffeine, the participants cognitive performance, mood and thirst has been affected even at doses same as and even lesser than the amounts of caffeine contained in a single serving of beverages containing caffeine (Smit, Rogers, 2000). 2.3  Effect of caffeine on Memory 2.3.1  Information processing model processes memory The Information Processing Theory assumes that human memory is formed in the same way that a computer processes information. There are 3 stages of memory which are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Cherry, N.D).. A computer receives information from external devices codes information followed by storing the information into its memory and uses the information to produce an output (McLeod, 2008). In humans, memory is formed by the input device called the sensory register, which consist of our five senses namely taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell that enables us to receive information from our surroundings. The information received by our sensory memory will then undergo selective attention and the selected memory will be stored into our short term memory. Short term memory information that has been selected will be held temporarily so that it can be used, removed or transferred into our long term memory. Information that is stored in the long term memory can be stored for a very long time. 2.3.2  Short term memory and working memory Short term memory and working memory are often used interchangeably (Posit Science, 2015). The ability to store information temporarily for immediate retrieval and removal is short term memory, while working memory is the processing of information stored in the short term memory for manipulation (Examined existence, N.D). Information that has undergone selective attentionduring sensory memory will be generated in the short term memory (Cherry, N.D). The function of Short-term memory is to choose, launch and discontinue information-processing functions which consist of encoding, storing and retrieving data to and from the long term memory (Medicine.net, 2013). Short term memory has limited capacity and can only store about seven plus minus 2 items and it also has limited duration as it is very fragile and can be lost whenever there are distractions (Mc Leod, 2009). 2.3.3  The magic number seven plus and minus two Miller discovered in 1956 that an average adult can store about seven plus minus two items in their short term memory (Bilash, 2011). If information is chunked together, we will be able to store more information (Mc Leod, 2009). 2.4  Short term memory test 2.4.1  MAS The Memory Assessment Scale has three areas of cognitive function MAS is a comprehensive battery that has the ability to assesses a person’s short-term, verbal and visual memory functioning. In order to assess memory, this battery has 12 subtest that are based on the 7 memory task which are Verbal Span, List Learning, Prose memory, Visual Span, Visual Recognition, Visual Reproduction and Names-Faces. The â€Å"verbal span test† is a test whereby a series of numbers will be read forward and backwards to the participants slowly beginning with 2 numbers to 3 numbers to 4 numbers up till 9 numbers, participants are then required to repeat the numbers said by the examiner in the correct order. 2.4.2  Wechsler Memory Scale A set of numbers will be announced through headphones to the participants at the rate of 1 word per second. Digits are chosen at random without repetition up to of 9 digits (when participants has a gone more than 9 numbers single digit will be doubled). The successive digits cannot occur in ascending or descending order with equal step sizes. A notification will be shown to alert the participants after the final digit at an interval of 1.0 s, so that the participants will know when to repeat the sequence said. The digit sequence was shown on the examiners monitor during its list presentation and the response of the participants were analysed by the examiner using the computer keyboard. The participant is then told to repeat the numbers that were shown or read to them. 2.4.3 Digit span test A list of numbers are shown or read out to the participants. This process is continued until the participant cannot remember either the full sequence of numbers or the correct order of numbers. In the reverse trial of the Digit Span a series of numbers will be read to the participant and the participant will be asked to repeat the number sequence that was said by the examiner in the reverse order. This sequence of number is continued until the participant makes an error. Participants are given two chances for each sequence of number because both forward and reverse trials are given twice. The score of the Digit Span test is calculated by adding the total number of correct sequences, backwards and forwards. This test is also scored differently for a range of ages. For an adult to score an average score is about six numbers both backwards and forwards. While above average is anything over seven. Because of time limits, the computerized version of this test will only be able to measure the participant’s ability to repeat back a number sequence in the forward order. The 15 minute time limit should not greatly affect the results. An accurate result will be obtained and the participant’s working memory can be viewed (Mendez,N.D). References Maryann Gromisch, 2014, Stimulant Effects of Caffeine, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 13th April 2015 from http://www.livestrong.com/article/266388-stimulant-effects-of-caffeine/ Dani Veracity, Tuesday, October 11, 2005, The hidden dangers of caffeine: How coffee causes exhaustion, fatigue and addiction, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 15th April 2015 from http://www.naturalnews.com/012352_caffeine_coffee.html# HowStuffWorks.com, Why does caffeine keep you awake? Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 21 January 2009. 9th April 2015, http://health.howstuffworks.com/wellness/drugs-alcohol/caffeine-awake.htm Eli Bay, N.D, THE STRESS REACTION: FLIGHT OR FIGHT, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 7th April 2015 from http://www.elibay.com/understanding-stress.html Daniel A. Hussar, 2013, Tolerance and Resistance to Drugs, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 7th April 2015, from http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/drugs/factors_affecting_response_to_drugs/tolerance_and_resistance_to_drugs.html NIH ,2007, The Neurobiology of Drug Addiction, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 10th April 2015 from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/teaching-packets/neurobiology-drug-addiction/section-iii-action-heroin-morphine/6-definition-tolerance Joseph Stromberg, 2013, This Is How Your Brain Becomes Addicted to Caffeine, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 18th April 2015 from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/this-is-how-your-brain-becomes-addicted-to-caffeine-26861037/?no-ist Karyn OKeeffe, March 2011, Caffeine affects your sleep. No ifs, no buts. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 18th April 2015 from http://sciblogs.co.nz/sleep-on-it/2011/03/11/caffeine-affects-your-sleep-no-ifs-no-buts/ Gerald Gabriel, 26 August 2000, The Drug of Choice: Caffeine and the Brain, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 5th May 2015 from http://brainconnection.brainhq.com/2000/08/26/the-drug-of-choice-caffeine-and-the-brain/ Travis Bradberry, 21st August 2012, Caffeine: The Silent Killer of Emotional Intelligence. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 7th May 2015 http://www.forbes.com/sites/travisbradberry/2012/08/21/caffeine-the-silent-killer-of-emotional-intelligence/ McLeod, S. A., 2009, Short Term Memory, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 9th May 2015 from http://www.simplypsychology.org/short-term-memory.html Kendra Cherry, N.D, What Is Memory?, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 11th May 2015 from http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/memory.htm Sandy McAlpine, Coffee consumption can improve alertness concentration, viewed on 11th May 2015, http://www.coffeeassoc.com/contact-us/coffee-consumption-can-improve-alertness-concentration/> Kim Ann Zimmermann, January 28th 2014 , What is Short-Term Memory Loss?, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 13th May2015 from, http://www.livescience.com/42891-short-term-memory-loss.html Medicine.net, 28th August 2013, Definition of Short-term memory, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 16thMay 2015, from, http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7142 Posit Science, 2015, Short-Term Memory, viewed 17th May 2015, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 16th May 2015 from, http://www.brainhq.com/brain-resources/memory/types-of-memory/short-term-memory Examined existence, N.D, Difference Between Short-Term, Long-Term, and Working Memory, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 17th May2015, from http://examinedexistence.com/difference-between-short-term-long-term-and-working-memory/ Olenka Bilash, 2011, Millers Magical Number, Retrieved from the world Wide Web on 17thMay2015, from http://www.educ.ualberta.ca/staff/olenka.bilash/best%20of%20bilash/miller.html Chrysoula Kourtidou-Papadeli, Christos Papadelis, Alexandros-Louizos Louizos, * a Olympia Guiba-Tziampiri. 2002. Maximum cognitive performance and physiological time trend measurements after caffeine intake. Cognitive brain research, 13(3),pp407-15. Mayo clinic staff, 14th April2014, Caffeine: How much is too much?, Mayo clinic,viewed 19th May 2015,http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678?pg=1> Mayo clinic staff, 14th April2014, Caffeine: How much is too much?, Mayo clinic,viewed 19th May 2015,http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678?pg=2> Autumn Rivers, 16th July 2012, Caffeine Overdose, Healthline, viewed on 19thMay 2015, http://www.healthline.com/health/caffeine-overdose#Overview1> Smit, H.J Rogers, P.J.2000.Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology,152,167-173. Neil F. Neimark, M.D.,N.D,5 Minute Stress Mastery, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1st June 2015 from http://www.thebodysoulconnection.com/EducationCenter/fight.html David Schardt, December 2012, Caffeine!, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 1st June 2015 from http://www.cspinet.org/nah/articles/caffeine.html Seth Simonds, N.D, 7 Caffeine-Free Ways to Increase Alertness, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://www.lifehack.org/articles/productivity/7-caffeine-free-ways-to-increase-alertness.html Katie Chasey, N.D, 8 NATURAL WAYS TO FUEL YOUR ENERGY LEVEL THROUGH THE DAY, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://breakingmuscle.com/health-medicine/8-natural-ways-to-fuel-your-energy-level-through-the-day Chris Bailey, 6th June 2013, 9 brain foods that will improve your focus and concentration, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://alifeofproductivity.com/9-brain-foods-that-will-boost-your-ability-to-focus/ Rachael Rettner, 16th July 2013, Drinking Water May Provide Mental Boost, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://www.livescience.com/38212-drinking-water-mental-performance.html   Becky Bernstein, 10th June 2015, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://relaj.com/good-hydration/2012/06/feeling-tired-drink-water-to-energize-your-mind-and-body/ Leonardo Mendez, Joseph Dougherty, Marissa Martinez, Brendan Griffin and Greg Lemay, N.D, Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2nd June 2015 from http://www.anselm.edu/internet/compsci/faculty_staff/mmalita/HOMEPAGE/ProjectPsychWEB/lmendez/Project/index.html

Toyota Way

Asian Institute of Technology School of Management SM71. 42 Cross-cultural Management How does Toyota operate its philosophies between Japan and Thailand? [pic] Tutor: Prof. Dr. Marie-Therese Claes Group 1: †¢ Ms. Phung Viet Ha †¢ Ms. Nguyen Le Hang †¢ Mr. Vu Quang Linh †¢ Mr. Nguyen Van Ha †¢ Mr. Nguyen Trung Thuc Date: September 7, 2012 Executive summary In the 21 century, the world we inhabit is coming â€Å"flat† where many political, social economic and cultural barriers have been being discharged. The development of global organizations means that clients, suppliers and business may be located across a range of countries and regions.The number of interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds in the workplace is growing exponentially in companies of all sizes. Understanding cultural differences and developing cross-cultural communication and coordination have become important than ever before for organizations. These skills help or ganizations to work more effectively across cultural barriers. This paper examines the cross border coordination between Toyota and its subsidiaries in Thailand. In this paper we will have a brief research about the intercultural problems of Toyota.How Toyota deals with cross-border business coordination problem to become the global No. 1 automaker in general and Thailand’s bestseller automobile in particular is analyzed on basic information and cross-culture management. The empirical case of Toyota in Thailand is selected to for study and lessons learnt as Thailand is the first country in the oversea expansion of Toyota’s manufacturing and where Toyota experienced good practices in coordination mechanism between mother Corporation and its regional and local subsidiaries. 1. INTRODUCTION 1. Background on cross-cultural business coordinationCross-cultural business coordination aims at dealing with the  interaction  of people from different  backgrounds in the busi ness world. Cross culture is a vital issue in international business, as the success of international trade  depends upon the smooth interaction of employees from different cultures and regions. A growing number of companies are consequently devoting substantial resources toward training their employees to interact effectively with those of companies in other cultures in an effort to foment a positive cross-cultural experience.Nowadays, firms, especially those from developed countries, increasingly expand their business overseas in the attempt of seeking for the competitive advantages of the new resources. This results in the more complex structure of multi-national corporations. Transnational corporations see cross-cultural business coordination very important in order to have smooth operation and balance control between headquarters and its subsidiaries toward production efficiency improvement. In this connection, the differences in languages, values and other dimensions should be studied and based on that find the ways to harmonize those for better coordination.Cross culture can be experienced by an employee who is transferred to a location in another country. The employee must learn the language and culture of those around him. This can be more difficult if this person is acting in a managerial capacity;  someone in this position who  cannot effectively communicate with or understand  their employees' actions can lose their credibility. In an  ever-expanding  global economy, cross culture and  adaptability will continue to be important factors in the business world. 2. Toyota and its philosophies 1. About ToyotaToyota Motor Corporation was founded on August 28, 1937 by Sakichi Toyoda. After 70 years of manufacturing and developing, at the end of March 2012, Toyota conducts its business worldwide with 50 overseas manufacturing companies in 27 countries and regions. Toyota's vehicles are sold in more than 160 countries and regions. The Toyotaâ €™s capital reached 397. 05 billion yen with 325,905 employees all around the world. Toyota is known as the World’s N01 automaker with its regional headquarters in the North America (03 headquarters), Europe (01 headquarter) and Asia (03 headquarters).Thailand was the first country where Toyota Motor Corporation started to expand its business overseas. Toyota Motor Thailand (TMT) was established in 1962 with the capital of 11 million Baht. Toyota Motor Thailand grows continuously and reached the capital of 7,520 million Baht with 13,500 employees and production capacity of 550,000 units per year in 2009 (Toyota, 2009). TMT becomes one of the key contributors to Toyota worldwide, and Thailand’s number one automobile manufacturer. 2. Toyota’s Vision and PhilosophiesTo manage subsidiaries around the world to achieve the same Toyota quality, Toyota created a corporate philosophy that’s has been passed down from generation to generation within company, whi ch is called â€Å"Guiding Principle at Toyota†. Toyota Code of conduct and Toyota Way are tools implementing to assist Toyota realize their goals. Toyota Code of Conduct was issued in 1998 providing a basic, detail explanation and examples of actions and issues that one must be aware of when carrying out business activities in and living in global society.The code of conduct is dispersed among management of subsidiaries in Japan and overseas for developing common awareness. Besides Toyota Code of conduct, Toyota Way was established in 2001 to simplify the values and methods that employees have to carry out to undertake the guiding principle throughout company activities. Toyota Way is functioning as the key standard of global Toyota organization and it presents Toyota’s philosophy to focus on long-term benefit while developing vehicles that exceed customer expectations and contribute to community and to the future of mobility.The Toyota Way consists of continuous impr ovements and respect for people. The key concept of Toyota Way is actively working and creating new ideas for the best with ongoing process to improve their business, never satisfied where they are, respect all the stakeholders and working with be believe in success by personal effort and good teamwork (Toyota, 2007). One of the main elements in Toyota Way is mutual respect by promoting safety among employees and employees have to be trained both for daily operation and behavioral role.Toyota’s Global Visions look toward to following goals: ? To lead the way to the future of mobility, enriching lives around the world with the safest and most responsible ways of moving people. ? To exceed the expectation and be rewarded with a smile through their commitment to quality, constant innovation and respect for the planet. ? To meet their challenging goals by engaging the talent and passion of people who believe there is always better way. Toyota Production System (TPS) aims at pursi ng the most efficient methods for all aspects of production the method of production.Toyota considers the objective of â€Å"making the vehicles ordered by customers in the quickest and most efficient way, in order to deliver the vehicles as quickly as possible† as an issue of great importance. TPS was built based on following concepts to achieve the best quality of product while minimizing waste through defective detection: ? The first concept is â€Å"Jidoka†, which stands for automation. Toyota set up the mechanization and links it with computerization so the production system immediately stops working when a problem arises in the process to avoid defective products. The first concept is â€Å"Just-in-Time†, which enables the company to minimize level of inventory. 3. Intercultural problem in the business coordination between Toyota and its subsidiaries in Thailand Toyota has set up its global strategies and goals for all Toyota’s subsidiaries. ? To ma intain Toyota’s position as market leader in automotive industry; ? Continuous growth; ? Boost profitability and return for the shareholders. In the process spreading its philosophies, strategies and goals to the subsidiaries, Toyota encountered certain difficulties on cross-border coordination, which are arisen from cultural differences.The Japanese management style was called â€Å"group capitalism† by Alfred Chandler – a business historian. The style was described as emphasized group behavior and values interpersonal harmony. The manager and corporation are put together in a very culturally dependent system, which is considered as a constraint for many companies when they expanded globally. The management system did not function well because subsidiaries operate separately by substantial time and distance barriers (Christopher A. Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal, 1999).Different ways of thinking also were difficulties for the integration of non-Japanese into the management process. Japanese corporations often retained decision-making and control at the center, i. e. the management was conducted by those who understood the subtleties of the existing system (Christopher A. Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal, 1999). In case of Toyota and its subsidiaries in Thailand, Japanese managing officers of Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC) served as the president of both Toyota Motor Asia Pacific Engineering and Manufacturing Co. Ltd (TMAP-EM) and Toyota Motor Thailand (TMT).Language and communication created barriers to the business coordination as people were speaking with different voices and sending out inconsistent messages. 2. DISCUSSION 1. Analysis of the intercultural problem The intercultural challenge faced by Toyota Motor Corporation in the cross-border coordination in Thailand originated in cultural differences. In general, from viewpoints of national level, putting Japan and Thailand in the value dimensions as in Hofstede’s Study, the ranki ngs received is shown in the table below (David C. Thomas p. 51-52) (David C. Thomas p. 51-52). Table 1. Cultural dimension rankings follow Hofstede’s Study Dimension |Japan |Thailand | |Power Distance |54 |64 | |Individualism |46 |20 | |Masculinity |95 |34 | |Uncertainty Avoidance |92 |64 | |Long-term orientation |80 |56 | Power distance Japan has lower power distance culture that Thailand does. Therefore, it is implied that in order to have smooth coordination from TMC to its subsidiaries in Thailand, Toyota should consider the followings: ? Give clear and explicit directions to Thai employees; ?Do not expect Thai subordinates to take initiative; ? Show deference to those with higher level through language, behavior, etc. ; ? Expect to encounter more bureaucracy behaviors. Individualism It is can be seen from Hofstede’s rankings that both Japan and Thailand has collectivist cultures. However, Thai is more collectivistic than Japanese. Therefore, some possible conside ration for Toyota in developing business with Thais is listed below: ? Promotions do not depend upon Thai employee’s performance and achievement, but seniority and experiences; ? Decision making may be a slow process as many individual across the system will need to be asked for advices; Praise should be addressed to a team rather than individuals. Masculinity In the research of Hofstede, Japan was the world’s most masculine country and Thailand was among the least one or most feminine culture. In the case that Toyota seeks for the sustainable manufacturing subsidiary development in Thailand, some notes should be taken into account such as: ? Personal questions are normal rather than assertive; ? Dealing with trust weights more than projected profit margins and other similar things; ? Thais openly show favoritism to close relations; ? Small talk at business functions will focus on Thai employees’ life and interest rather than just business. Uncertainty avoidance Japan has highly risk-averse culture, which can be seen through strict laws and regulations. Thailand has the uncertainty avoidance score just above medium, therefore much lower than that of Japan. Some attentions that Toyota should pay for developing its manufacturing in Thailand could be as follows: ? Try to be more flexible or open to new ideas; ? Allow Thai employees the autonomy and space to execute their task on their own; ? Recognized that Thai employees may take different approach to life and see their destiny; ? Agreed plans should be realized as soon as possible. Long-term orientation At the score of 80 Japan is considered as one of the long term oriented societies.This is reflected that Japanese see their life as a very short moment in a long history of mankind. In Japanese corporations, the possible observations are long term orientation in the constantly high rate of investment in R&D even in economically difficult times, higher own capital rate, priority to steady grow th of market share rather than to a quarterly profit, and so on. With a score of 56 Thailand is a mild term oriented culture. Amongst the values that are admired, working hard and having a sense of moderation are dominant for Thais. Timescales and deadline in Thailand are fluid. Therefore, Toyota should consider the followings in working with Thais: Reliability, responsiveness and empathy as very important element. ? Building up close relationships with Thai subsidiaries is of importance. ? Building relationship takes time. 2. Solutions for Toyota in Thailand There are some solutions were found out by Toyota to achieve the same objective and target among the subsidiaries all around the world, especially in Thailand – the first country where Toyota Motor Corporation started to expand its business overseas. 1. Global Production Center Toyota has established Global Production center (GPC) in 2003 as Toyota’s global human resource training center. Toyota operation comprise of 53 production sites in 27 countries around the world.In managing its operation, Toyota encounter a diversity of people therefore Toyota consider human resource development as an important mechanism in maintaining its global business. GPC is the place where employees are trained about the Toyota’s culture and values and make them understand the Toyota way and to provide the skills which are needed for employees to carry out the task. In the past, human development was carried out in Japan only. However, with rapid growth of Toyota’s overseas operations leads to the transition of GPC to the regional. Technical skills from Japanese trainers are spread to local trainers and from the local trainers to local employees and also to employees from the other countries in the region.The objective of the GPC is to inculcate employees that Toyota’s products should have the same quality regardless of which origin it as produced (Toyota Annual Report, 2008). GPC, human res ources development is implementing by developing supervisors and trainers in subsidiaries with assistance from headquarter. Another function of GPC is helping the subsidiary plants to prepare for redesign of production when newly developed model is launched so that the plant can efficiently switch over to produce them. Visual manual videos were studied and make used in GPC for representing the best demonstration. This practice takes advantages over the traditional manuals, by which only written words or still illustration are shown.Toyota can reduce time for staff training and avoid misunderstanding through the adaptation of visual manual videos. Within 5 years, 13000 employees both from Japan and abroad were trained by GPC and distribute knowledge they learn to their team members. The Asia Pacific Global Production Centre (AP-GPC) was established in Samutprakarn, Thailand in 2005 to serve as the regional training centre. AP-GPC provides trainings for TMT’s employees and also supporting to other Toyota’s Asian manufacturing affiliates. 2. Restructuring of organizational structure Toyota Motor Corporation spread out its organization around the world and set up regional headquarters in North America, Europe and Asia.In Asia, there are two headquarters in Singapore and Thailand that are responsible for different business entities. In the past, subsidiaries in each country had to report directly to headquarters in Japan. The restructuring to regional headquarters believes that it could allow subsidiaries to work more efficiently and regional headquarter assist to each country in the region in time. The close coordination between the regional headquarters can support each other through corporation in engineering, manufacturing and marketing. The regional headquarters also facilitate and response in time to customer’s demands throughout the region and provide flexible react to market changes.With the establishment of Asian regional headquarter i n Thailand; Toyota Motor Thailand became a main center to provide support for manufacturing and also research and development in Asia – Pacific region. 3. Thainization Toyota Motor Thailand launched the localization policy, which is called Thainization. Thainization was the philosophy that drives Toyota Motor Thailand before Toyota way was introduced. Thainization is to promote the local employees to take part in management level in 20 years (Amano, 2008). In the 1960, at the beginning of Toyota in Thailand, the management was carried on by Japanese and strictly followed the policies and guidelines set by its mother company Toyota Motor Corporation. Around 1980’s, very few Thai’s were positioned as managers but the final decisions were still made by Japanese expatriates.Since 1987, Toyota Motor Thailand decided to transform the organization from management only by Japanese to only by Thai, which is called Thainization. The Japanese expatriates were converted fro m managers to coordinators. In every department have some Japanese staffs work together with Thai staffs mainly in the coordinator role as an adviser for technical information and making connection network among Toyota group to help communication flow smoothly. At present, only the president, executive Vice president and Treasurer are Japanese and the other high-level management officers are Thais (http://www. toyota. co. th/en/about. php? Page= management).Thainization in Toyota Motor Thailand was implemented as the necessity to adopt of globalization in the world while considering localization (Imai, 2006). 4. Lateral communication Lateral communication is of importance because it is the way that all organizational units are connected throughout the system of resource exchange and organizational set of transnational corporation in different locations. Toyota Technical Center Asia Pacific –Thailand (TTCAP-TH), which was established serving as Research and Development unit fo r Asia Pacific region, can be seen as a network platform for exchange knowledge and skills between different functions and with counterpart in Japan to support local needs.This kind of lateral communications between business units through the collaboration between each geographically specialized division contributes to widespread of Toyota Way that focuses on sharing the same Toyota values and cultures. Another step toward the relocation of support division from Japan to Asian region is the setting up of TMAP Thailand, which represents the network platform providing production assistance to TMC’s affiliates in the region. 5. Informal communication Nohria and Ghoshal (1994, p. 494) asserted that extensive socialization and communication builds trust among the managers and creates foundation for reciprocity and easier negotiation and resolution of potential conflicts.Informal communication exits in Toyota organization so that it brings bout informal exchange idea between Toyota Japan and Toyota Thailand. In Thailand, TMT made use of job rotation of employee as a tool for developing people because of the consideration that working in the same job for long time could make people stick with the old habit and, therefore, reluctant to change. This practice has enhanced the informal communication and made information widely shared throughout in the organization. Employees and departments in rotation process accumulate working experiences and knowledge as well as share their own values for adapting to the same organization culture. 3. CONCLUSIONIn summary, Toyota has successfully applied many strategies in order to improve communication across border while keeping many existing core values. Also, due to the scale of the Toyota Company, there has been no particular method or formula that is best fit for achieving the existing success in Toyota. Toyota had to apply a few methods to efficiently achieve localization while remaining competitive in globalization. Firs tly, The Thai’s characteristics are different than the Japanese so the GPC was introduced to help Toyota’s employees to think in the same way – The Toyota way in term of values and cultures. Also it trained employees many certain skills to be capable of finishing given tasks.Secondly, In Thailand, the structural mechanism obviously takes part as the fundamental formation of the organizational structure. Toyota remarkably use of departmentalization as the structure to manage the business entity according to function and responsibility. The critical scrutinize regarding centralization or decentralization of decision making is become blurred since Toyota to some extent delegate the decision authority to its subsidiaries while the final exclusive decision remain at the headquarters. In addition, the formal written policies together with standard production system considerably utilize in Toyota subsidiaries so that its affiliates follow the same principle and maintai n the same Toyota standard.To achieve the same goal, planning in the form of the strategic planning, regional target goal as well as reward is used as guideline to accomplish the goal. To control the performance of the company, output control is one of the tools that Toyota use to motivate the performance of their employee as well as subsidiaries. However, the hierarchical or behavioral control is coexisting to ensure the employee act in order to fulfill the best performance. The optimum control is to mix between output and behavioral control so that the finest advantage is achieved. Thirdly, Toyota has introduced â€Å"Thainization† which allowed Thai people to get into managerial positions as the top position before was only for the Japanese sent from headquarter.Last but not least, the informal or subtle mechanisms are broadly promoted within the Toyota organization. The lateral or cross department communication visibly seen by the messy organization that employee have to communicate or coordinate with other departments or the same department in the region among functional and geographical line simultaneously to undertake the work. The establishment of regional headquarters in Thailand (TMAP-EM) is one of the cases that put forward lateral communication, as the network of exchange in the region required the lateral communication among the concern departments. Besides, the informal communication plays as vital mechanism in the organization.The present of Japanese as employees and also coordinators make possible the informal exchange of idea between Toyota Thailand and Japan that finally facilitate the subsidiaries action and decision in line with those of headquarters. In short, the achievement of Toyota when applied with all the methods, mechanism was very fruitful as Toyota Motor Thailand (TMT) operated more efficiently resulting in time and cost savings, better communication, better understanding in the organization and better employees involvement . So the most obvious example was that the second factory was opened in 1989. And this result showed that Toyota has successfully managed all the operation across border, retaining local flexibility and while achieving global integration.Moreover, with the rapid development of many other Multi-National Companies (MNCs) and trying to recruit more and more talents, Toyota has also exploited the local population in order to get a broader pool of talents (combining not only from Japanese and Thai in this case, but also from other nationalities). Furthermore, with the matrix of subsidiaries and one headquarter, Toyota tries to make the organization stable with core visions and beliefs from the Headquarter but also loot the host of new ideas from all around the globe as they need to keep up with the quickly-changing characteristic of technology with new ideas. With all the cross-cultural issues above, Toyota would have more experience and solution for future encounters. REFERENCES †¢ Bartlett, Christopher A. and Ghoshal, Sumantra (1999). Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution – Companies, Cultures and the Transformation to the Transnational. Book excerpt. Nohria, Nitin and Sumantra Ghoshal (1994). Differentiated Fit and Shared Values: Alternatives for Managing Headquarters-Subsidiary Relations. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15, No. 6 †¢ Thomas, David C. (2008) Cross-Cultural Management: Essential Concepts. Sage Publications. Chapter 3 †¢ Petison, Phallapa, (2010). Cross Cultural Relationship Marketing in the Thai Context: The Japanese Buyer’s Perspective. International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, Vol. 1, No. 1, June, 2010 †¢ Friedman, Thomas L. (2005). The World is flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century †¢ Cutler, John. The cross -cultural communication trainer’s manual – Vol. : designing Cross-Cultural Training †¢ Toyota Motor Corporation profile from http://www. toy ota-global. com/company/profile †¢ Toyota Guiding Principles, Toyota Way, Toyota Code of Conduct, Toyota Global Vision and Toyota Production Centre from http://www. toyota-global. com/company/vision_philosophy/ †¢ Toyota Motor Thailand Management Team from http://www. toyota. co. th/en/about. php? Page=management †¢ Business coordination across borders within Toyota: a case study focusing the coordination between Japan and Toyota from http://mdh. diva-portal. org/smash/record. jsf? pid=diva2:224180 †¢ Toyota: A Transnational case study from http://www. ecclesbourne. derbyshire. sch. uk[pic]

What is Genetically Modified Food - 1274 Words

A few years ago I developed a tree nut allergy. I made my Dad a cake for Fathers Day using almond extract, it did not end well. It seems as though overnight I had become allergic to most things in my everyday diet. I was now part of the 1 in 13 children in the Unites States has a food allergy (foodallergy.org). Thats nearly two in every classroom. Why? What had I done wrong? What we do know is that the way we produce our food has drastically changed. That question is: How exactly are all of these new inventions in our food effecting us? Before I started my research I knew bits and pieces of information, but nothing very significant. Through having a food allergy I have learned that one explanation for them is that we are eating so much processed food that our bodies are not capable of processing. In other countries, such as France, food allergies are almost unheard of. This is because the French eat local and not fast food as we do in the United States. 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Animal Farm And 1984 - 1457 Words

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The setting in Animal Farm allows the reader to see a totalitarian government in a comical setting, because George Orwell develops the characters with animalistic characteristics. The setting in 1984 allows the reader to see a more drastic version of a totalitarian government, because George Orwell develops characters and plot in a darker way, drastically enhancing the idea of totalitarian governments. This allows the reader to see totalitarian governments. This allows the reader to see totalitarian governments and their con effects very clearly. There are also differences in sub themes, such as physical and mental control, as well as manipulation of technology. Manipulation is vital in Animal Farm for Napoleon because it is a useful weapon when mentally controlling someone. Napoleon is known throughout the book for his manipulation of words, which begin in the beginning when Old Major says his final words. 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